Different perspective of human

Motivation is a force in workers that enable them to go the extra mile in executing their official functions. As human beings are different, so are the factors that motivate them. Human idiosyncrasies and attitude would determine what motivate them. While some are motivated based on monetary incentives, other are motivated by the actualization of accomplishment they attain in their official function. It is then germane that managers know what really motivate each worker under their supervision for the organization to attain maximum effectiveness and efficiency. There are plethora theories on motivation. The Scientific school of thought of Frederick Taylor sees workers as machine that would be motivated only by monetary and economic incentives. This school of thought disregards the human relations aspect and informal networking among workers. The reward system advocated by the scientific school of thought on motivation is a piece-meal reward system. In this instance each worker are rewarded based on what he is able to produce. The Scientific school sees human being as naturally lazy who tend to devise ‘soldiering’ tactics to dodge work. Hence, close observation is advocated by this school of thought. The incentive through extra payment and reward for bonus work done is seen as the motivational factor for increasing productivity by the scientific school of thought. The Human Relations School, in an experiment in Hawthorne led by Elton Mayo, discovers those workers are really motivated by informal interrelationship at the work place. The welfares for workers would go a long way to motivate them in accomplishing more. Thus, the human relation school sees human resource as the most vital resource in the organization that should be catered for maximum productivity. Other motivational theories that stemmed out of the human relation school include Abraham Maslow’s ‘Hierarchy of need theory’, McGregor ‘X and Y theories’, Fredrick Herzberg ‘Two factors theories’, i.e. the ‘motivators’, and ‘hygiene’ factors, David McClelland ‘achievement theory, Victor Vroom’s ‘Expectancy theory, Adam’s ‘Equity theory’, etc. These theories have a meeting point, whereby they advocate that there are different levels and types of motivational factors. According to these theories when Individual workers are motivated by the right factors, they tend to put in the extra effort at ensuring they accomplish the target they have set for themselves as a way to repay the organization for meeting their needs and aspirations. REFERENCES Garner, Rochelle (2003), â€Å"Executives' Guide to Call Center Excellence: Motivational Strategies—Just Desserts† February. http://www.destinationcrm.com/articles/magazine_index.asp?IssueID=140   ( 1/11/06). Moore, Dianne-Jo (1991), â€Å"7 Motivational Strategies – Manager's Motivation Of Workers† Modern Machine Shop http://findarticles.com/p/search?tb=art&qt=%22Dianne-Jo+Moore%22 (2/11/06) Wertheim, Edward G. (2005), â€Å"Historical Background of Organizational Behavior† http://web.cba.neu.edu/~ewertheim/introd/history.htm (11/09/06)   

IKEA India Entry Strategy Essay

IKEA originated in 1943 by a 17 year old Ingvar Kamprad using his entrepreneurial skills selling items out of a catalog and continued to expand where his stores is located in more than 30 countries currently. IKEA sells furniture and other household products at a very low price so that everyone can afford them. IKEA is always looking to save money on their packaging, costs, and any other opportunity they get to save money. As a team we thought it would be most beneficial for IKEA to enter into India specifically Mumbai, India. India is one of the most emerging countries and gives IKEA a great opportunity. As a team we feel IKEA should implement interior designers that help people decide which furniture properly fits in their house hold. The interior designer will be extremely knowledgeable and accommodating when helping people decorate their homes. India is an emerging country with one of the largest democracies in the world. India has one of the largest populations in the World which is a great opportunity for IKEA. One problem with the huge population is the wide array of income ranging from the very wealthy all the way down to the lower class who may work for as little as a dollar a day. The furniture industry in India only consists of .05% of its GDP which is another reason IKEA has a great opportunity to be successful in India. India has a large opportunity for FDI (foreign direct investment) because of the current economic conditions and the rapid growth rate of the country in terms of GPD and other economic indicators. IKEA in India will maintain the original Swedish logo and plans to target people in India in the lower middle class and above. It is estimated that there are between 30 and 300 million people that would fit into IKEA’s target market. IKEA plans to start as one store in Mumbai and expand depending on sales and revenue. IKEA will need to have managers who are experienced help with the opening procedure to ensure that everything is done right. It is essential for IKEA to hire Indian managers and retail  workers as they will be able to make a connection to the guests that foreigners might not be able to make. People of India understand how life works, what people want, and how they do business. IKEA will need to cover all aspects of business in terms of employment from sales people all the way up to top management and everything in between. IKEA must promote and market their opening properly so that people are aware of the store location and what it has to offer. Advertising and promotion is very important for them and utilizing social media could be a large attribute to their marketing campaign. IKEA is going to issue common stock and other aspects of business to ensure that they can afford the transition into India. There are many challenges that IKEA may face in this process, but through careful analysis and marketing research they can overcome any adversity that may come their way. COMPANY OVERVIEW: IKEA was established in 1943 where 17 year old Ingvar Kamprad started a local catalog selling household goods with money that his father had given him. Kamprad ran a very successful business and decided to open selling furniture at a low price. Kamprad established a name for himself becoming very reliable, dependable, and offering a good product at a low price. In 1965, one of the biggest stores was opened where people of Sweden lined up outside the doors waiting for the store to open. Kamprad ran a very successful business expanding globally and penetrated the market in the United States in Pennsylvania in 1985. IKEA is considered to be one of the World’s top furniture retailers generating more than $12 million in profit in 2002. IKEA sells furniture and other miscellaneous products at a very low price allowing numerous people to purchase their products. IKEA sets an initial benchmark in regards to the pricing and then cut the prices by more than 20-50% to ensure guests of all social classes can purchase there items. IKEA understands that only allowing the upper class to purchase their product eliminates a large amount of potential customers. IKEA also tries to attract to college students who are  on a tight budget, but need to purchase furniture for dorm rooms or apartments. IKEA’s mission statement is: â€Å"The IKEA Concept is based on offering a wide range of well designed, functional home furnishing products at prices so low that as many people as possible will be able to afford them. Rather than selling expensive home furnishings that only a few can buy, the IKEA Concept makes it possible to serve the many by providing low-priced products that contribute to helping more people live a better life at home.† IKEA will continue to sell their products at a low price as long as people continue to assemble their own products. A huge difference between IKEA and other leading furniture retailers is that IKEA does not assemble products for their customers which keep their costs low. IKEA is very price conscious and always trying to keep costs down. An example of keeping costs low is the flat boxes they use for their products which minimize shipment costs and also production costs. IKEA managers have been trained to make employees aware of exceeding costs that are harmful to the company such as shutting lights or computers off that are not in use. IKEA currently operates in 42 different countries all over the world, selling products at low affordable prices for everyone. When IKEA began going international they ran into some problems as they did not do marketing research to learn about what the customer wants. An example is in Philadelphia, USA where customers complained about furniture not fitting with the American lifestyle. IKEA scrambled to gather information to regain their position in the international market. IKEA learned a lot of lessons about entering internationally realizing there are many changes that need to occur to succeed internationally. After this mishap in the United States, IKEA developed a marketing research team which has led to their success in the other countries around the world that they entered. IKEA maps there stores out properly to ensure that people spend money while there. They often have furniture at the beginning of the store with a pathway leading customers throughout the store to see everything. If a  customer wants to purchase a particular item they write down the code and give it to the workers in the warehouse. At the end of the journey throughout the store customers also will be given the opportunity to purchase smaller items such as pens, pencils, paper, and other miscellaneous products affiliated with furniture or household goods. This is a beneficial marketing and strategic planning for IKEA to maximize their profits by the layout of their stores. INDIA – COUNTRY ANALYSIS India is the world’s largest democracy and is the second most populous country. It is one of the most diverse nations with numerous cultures, religions and languages. It is taking long strides with a progressive pace in terms of highly improved rate of literacy, health and life expectancy and majority of its citizens have been less affected by poverty, when compared to the past. In the past decade, India has turned out to be a major player in the economic arena. For a while now, it has been growing at a rate of around 8% and is the second fastest growing nation, second only to China. A great amount of credit for this growth is attributed to the policies adopted by the Indian government and the youth, which forms a huge part of the population. With this growth, India is on the brink of a makeshift. It has become a major market for many companies and has paved way for huge corporations to set up their businesses and invest heavily. PESTLE ANALYSIS In business, PESTLE analysis is very important. Originally designed as a business environmental scan, PESTLE analysis is an analysis of the external macro-environment in which a business operates. These are factors which are beyond the control or influence of a business, however are important to be aware of when doing product development, business or strategy planning. PESTLE stands for: P- Political E- Economical S- Social T- Technological L- Legal E-Environmental For businesses to be set up, let us look at the PESTLE analysis of India. POLITICAL India is the biggest democracy in the world. It is a federal republic. The political situation in the India is more or less stable. Most of its democratic history, the federal Government of India has been led by the (INC) Indian National Congress. State politics has been dominated by several national parties including the INC. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (CPI), and various regional parties are the other major players on the Indian political scene. In the 2009 Indian elections, the INC won the biggest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with an alliance called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various left-wing parties and members opposed to the BJP. Ideological inclination of political parties, influence of party forums, civil society etc. creates a political environment that promotes stability. In India, many political factors affect the business environment. For example, Bangalore established itself as the most impo rtant IT centre of India mainly because of political support. The major factors that affect the political environment are:- Taxation policy India has a well developed tax structure with a three-tier federal structure, comprising the Union Government, the State Governments and the Urban &Rural Local Bodies. The power to levy taxes and duties are distributed among the three tiers of Governments, in accordance with the provisions of the Indian Constitution. The main taxes/duties that the Union Government is empowered to levy are Income Tax, Customs duties, Central Excise and Sales Tax and Service Tax. The principal taxes levied by the State Governments are Sales, Stamp Duty, State Excise, Land Revenue, and Duty on Entertainment and Tax on Professions & Callings. The Local Bodies are empowered to levy tax on properties, Octroi Tax on Markets and Tax/User Charges for utilities like water supply, drainage, etc. Privatization Privatization reduces the political interface in the management of enterprises, leading to improved efficiency and productivity. India has adopted privatization in a big way. Most of the publicly owned enterprises have now been privatized. For example, a great part of the Indian Railways has been privatized which has improved the quality of service to a great extent. Deregulation After the reforms of 1991, the Indian government adopted a policy of deregulation. It has loosened its control on most industries which has helped the industries grow. ECONOMIC In order to solve economic problems, the government took several steps including control by the State of certain industries, central planning and reduced importance of the private sector. The main objectives of India’s development plans were: Initiate rapid economic growth to raise the standard of living, reduce unemployment and poverty Become self-reliant and set up a strong industrial base with emphasis on heavy and basic industries Reduce inequalities of income and wealth Adopt a socialist pattern of development – based on equality and prevent exploitation of man by man As a part of economic reforms, the Government of India announced a new industrial policy in July 1991. The broad features of this policy as follows: The Government reduced the number of industries under compulsory licensing to six. Disinvestment was carried out in case of many public sector industrial enterprises. Policy towards foreign capital was liberalized. The share of foreign equity participation was increased and in many activities 100 per cent Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) was permitted. Automatic permission was now granted for technology agreements with foreign companies. Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB) was setup to promote and channelize foreign investment in India. The economic factors in India are improving continuously. India has the third highest GDP in terms of purchasing power parity. Foreign direct investment in India rose 13 percent to $50.81 billion in the first 11 months of 2011 from a year earlier. India is a very attractive destination for investing as can be seen below. The Indian Economy is also witnessing a boom in the Retail sector. Almost 60  percent of the consumers are willing to try out new products and services. Around 44 percent of Indians are willing to invest in the stock market as the disposable incomes are going beyond the level of savings. The attitudes and thinking of consumers has also changed compared to the previous year because of a reduction in the dependence on male member or shopper. According to a survey, Indian consumers are willing to spend more on home improvements (38%) and leisure holidays (37%). The Total retail market of India is Rs. 19.48 Lakh Crore of which Rs.0.126 lakh crore is organized. The organized market is growing at a rate of 28% and is expected to touch Rs. 0.206 lakh crore in 2011-12. The organized retail market share to total GDP is 2.1% and to that of private consumption is 3.4%. Organized retail share to total retail market is 6.5%, which is estimated to touch 8.1% in 2012-13. SOCIAL Changes in social trends can impact the demand for a firm’s products and the availability and willingness of individuals to work. In India, for example, the population has been ageing. This has increased the costs for firms who are committed to pension payments for their employees because their staff is living longer. It also means some firms have started to recruit older employees to tap into this growing labor pool. It describes the characteristics of the society in which the organization exists. Literacy rate, customs, values, beliefs, lifestyle, demographic features and mobility of population are part o the social environment. It is important for managers to notice the direction in which the society is moving and formulate progressive policies according to the changing social scenario India is the second most populous nation in the world with an approximate population of over 1.1billion people. This population is divided in the following age structure: 0-14 years – 31.8%, 15-64 years – 63.1% and65 years and above – 5.1%. TECHNOLOGICAL New technologies create new products and new processes. MP3 players, computer games, online gambling and high definition TVs are all new markets created  by technological advances. Online shopping, bar coding and computer aided design are all improvements to the way business is done. Technology can reduce costs, improve quality and lead to innovation. These developments can benefit consumers as well as the organizations providing the products. India, in the past decade, has witnessed a technological growth unparalleled. With the advent of Information Technology, India has become the most favored destination for IT projects. This has helped in creating employment and raised the standard of living of many. Most of the government projects are now been carried out in consultation with private partners who bring in high-end technology. For example, the Bandra-Worli Sea Link project in Mumbai was done in collaboration with a Chinese firm which helped the project technically. LEGAL These are related to the legal environment in which firms operate. In recent years in the India there have been many significant legal changes that have affected firms’ behavior. The introduction of discrimination and disability discrimination legislation, an increase in the minimum wage and greater requirements for firms to recycle are examples of relatively recent laws that affect an organization’s actions. Legal changes can affect a firm’s costs and demand. This consists of legislation that is passed by the parliament and state legislatures. Examples of such legislation specifically aimed at business operations including the Trade mark Act 1969, Essential Commodities Act 1955, Standards of Weights and Measures Act 1969 and Consumer Protection Act 196. ENVIRONMENTAL Environmental factors include the weather and climate change. Changes in temperature can impact many industries including farming, tourism and insurance. With major climate changes occurring due to global warming and with greater environmental awareness, this external factor is becoming a significant issue for firms to consider. The growing desire to protect the  environment is having an impact on many industries such as the travel and transportation industries (for example, more taxes being placed on air travel) and the general move towards more environmentally friendly products and processes is affecting demand patterns and creating business opportunities. India has also realized the importance of these necessities and the government has laid down several norms for companies which they must adhere to if they need to run their businesses. INDIAN FURNITURE INDUSTRY INDUSTRY OVERVIEW The furniture industry in India is considered as a â€Å"non-organized† sector as it represents a small percentage (about 0.5%) of contribution to the formation of GDP. Moreover, the production is increasing every year. The furniture industry is categorized into various categories amongst which handicraft production is the major category which accounts for about 85% of the total furniture production in India. The wooden furniture is the major part of this non-organized sector, which caters mainly to home furniture demand. Demand for household furniture is easily affected by economic conditions such as disposable income, interest rates, employment level and income growth. The total size of the Indian furniture industry is estimated at around INR 900 billion. Eighty five percent of this falls into the unorganized sector. The furniture market is growing by 12-15 per cent per annum. In fact, around 300,000 workers are held by the furniture industry. FIVE FORCES ANALYSIS THE BARRIERS TO NEW ENTRANTS Barriers to entry explain the different criteria that could act possible barriers for companies to venture into new markets. For the Indian furniture market, the following could be the barriers: †¢ Cost of capital requirements The capital required to set up a furniture business could be pretty heavy and companies would have look for investors in order to meet the heavy capital requirements. †¢ Experiences and knowledge Since furniture business, in term of manufacturers and retailers, is considered as a shopping good which needs more time in selection so reputation is significant for the companies. Consistent with Imported furniture in India are booming, design becomes the first criteria in selecting furniture. This is influenced heavily by reputation and strong relation with customers and suppliers. How to begin and maintain the relationship along the value chain will help ensure survival in the furniture business. Developing relationships require knowledge and experiences which can be acquired and collected during operating in the market. This implies that this factor favors the companies already in the market. †¢ Legislation The legal aspect is not much of relevance for India furniture industry in terms of an impediment. Rather, it provides the opportunities of lower tariffs for the new comers. THE BARGAINING POWER OF BUYERS In India the bargaining power of customers in furniture market is high. Most of the time in furniture buying process is spent in looking and shopping products and once consumers decide what to buy, they will buy from retail or wholesale stores. Furthermore, designed furniture increasingly becomes to the furniture trend in Indian market. Product design is mostly in hand of retailers or wholesalers since they meet the need of consumers who come to  their shop therefore they know styles in the current trend. Porter suggests that retailers power become significant greater over manufacturers when they are able to influence consumer’s purchasing decisions. In case of India furniture market, the ability of retailers to shape future market significantly increases the power of the buyers. THE BARGAINING POWER OF SUPPLIERS The power of suppliers is in the same direction as the power of buyers in the sense that it can squeeze profitability out of the industry. Suppliers can use bargaining power over participants in an industry by raising prices or reducing the quality of goods or services. In Indian furniture industry the bargaining power of customers in furniture market is low. The modern design furniture rapidly becomes a furniture trend. Manufacturers produce furniture in various styles given by interior designers or retailers. This can lower the supplier power. THE THREAT OF SUBSTITUTE PRODUCTS OR SERVICES The stronger the substitution in the industry less profitable the industry is. Wooden furniture is the main product in Indian furniture industry. The potential substitution of tropical wood products is the obvious non-wood products. Aluminum or plastic products may be a substitute for wood products. The threat of the substitute aluminum is gradually high since the demand for aluminum product is gradually growing with the current prospects of Indian economic development in the coming decades. To compare with wood the advantage of aluminum is mainly its durability, high flexibility, easy maintenance and no rust. RIVALRY AMONG EXISTING COMPETITORS Rivalry among existing firms can be fierce. For a company to improve its competitive position, knowledge of its industry situation and its rivals is essential. The more the rivalry is intense, the less that industry is profitable. †¢ Number of rivals The competitive environment in India furniture industry seems to be low in the terms of intensity since there are not many companies in the industry. However, foreign competitors through foreign investment play an important role in the industry because of the growing trend of imported furniture. †¢ The industry growth Porter argues that slow industry growth leads to increasing competition since firms in the industry are inevitable to seek their expansion. From empirical findings, we found out that furniture market in India is growing positively every year. This implies that competition in the industry is not likely to be severe †¢ Product differentiation In an industry, product differentiation plays a significant role in protecting from competitors as customers have preferences and loyalty to particular sellers according to Porter. In Indian furniture industry, design makes product differentiated and design rapidly becomes trend. This means competition in this industry tends to be weak as a lot of design options are available which can generate product differentiation to meet the customer’s specific needs. INDIA – A GREAT PLACE TO INVEST India has a very stable political environment which has been suitable for foreign investors and its policies over the last few years have been successful to attract FDI in various sectors This shows that India is a fruitful market for companies planning to invest and enter this market. India is an important member of WTO which urges it to abide by its rules and regulations. India has the second largest population in the world which makes it a huge economy as it also has a rapid and stable economic growth  with low inflation rate and strong rupee value. India also has a cheap labor as compared to other developing countries. These indicators clearly signify India as a suitable place for the investors to invest. We have noticed that imported furniture is flooding in the market and growing up rapidly every year. The government policy of allowing 100% FDI in single brand retail is an added motive and enhances opportunities for foreign players in entering into Indian market. The ability of retailers to shape future market is increasing, however, buyer’s bargaining power is exerted very little as it doesn’t appear to be one single buyer who purchases large volumes of furniture and supplier’s bargaining power is also low as most of products are in hand of retailers in view of product design. Competitive situation in Indian furniture industry is not too intense due to the high growth of the industry and a small number of companies in the industry. 3. IKEA IN INDIA From the previous part, PESTLE and Five-Force analysis shows the great opportunity for the furniture industry in India. This time, with strong global presence and reputation itself, IKEA should really enter India for further profitability, by the large population and supportive business environment. This part we will explain the IKEA project organized in India by site selection and company strategy. IKEA entering India seems to be a quite promising idea, and as a team we have thought of another aspect that could prove to be quite profitable for IKEA. We feel that hiring interior designers to visit people’s homes or apartment building and help them with the process could generate more sales. An experienced interior designer who is knowledgeable can help sell products and also make recommendations for the customers. Many customers who don’t have a good sense of fashion can be left clueless when trying to shop for furniture or other household accessories. The interior designer will have a catalog with them when they make the initial visit, browsing with the customer. The customer has to pay a flat rate for the interior designer and then what ever they want to purchase. By allocating an interior designer IKEA could make more money because sales people have a tendency to push  products on people and create more sales for the company. 3.1 SITE SELECTION According to the India government (2012), India consists of 28 states and 7 Union territories. Each state has a unique demography, history and culture, value and language (India government, 2012). Using this information it is important that the first store implemented into India is essential for further success. Similar to China, India established the Special Economic Zones Acts (SEZs) in 2005 (Rawat, Bhushan and Surepally, 2011). The authors also point out that in investing there, a company will be given a variety of friendly business conditions e.g. incentives and tax exemptions. Supporting by Dohrmann (2008), SEZs will support business and will particularly enhance the competitiveness of export-oriented activities. IKEA might not be a direct exporter, but we see future potential that IKEA could establish the regional factory in India with the centre location connecting Asia and Europe and other branches. There are a number of states that have been part of SEZs, e.g. Andhra Pradesh, Chandigarh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu etc. (SEZ India 2012). Our first location or destination for India is the Western part specifically Mumbai, one of India’s most intensive business hubs and residents, locates (Figure X). We plan to settle a store in suburbs which is near Mumbai, possibly between Pune and Mumbai. The reason why we select this district is its favorable business environments which possibly encourage IKEA’s performance immensely. This derived from the advantages of land value, SEZs preferential treatments and Mumbai economy. Land value Real estate and land value are one of main priorities in establishing a new store. Although IKEA might have plenty of capital, we need to ensure the investment will be made in order to continue to be lucrative and profitable.  According to The Economic Times (2011), _’Property prices in the Delhi NCR region have escalated between 10-45% in the last one year.’,_ whereas Mumbai, on the contrary, the land value is subjected to fall 30% and even more as the developer was forced to sell the estate (Thakur, 2011). Therefore, IKEA had better started from less-costly area and when the firm keep progressing well, settling around New Delhi or Kalkatta can really be considered. SEZs Since Maharashtas has become SEZs, it attracts MNEs and foreign investors for certain. Rawat, Bhushan and Surepally (2011) exemplify that Duty free was allowed for import procurement of products and materials for development, operation and maintenance. Also, the company will benefit from many types of tax exemptions, for example, an exemption from export income 50 or 100% (under conditions), from Central Sales Tax, service tax and state sales tax. Therefore, under SEZs Act, it is not only support cost-effective strategy for IKEA but also lead to future investment of the company in the region, for instance, establish the manufacturing site or regional assemble activity. c. Mumbai’s developing economy and increasing population gives IKEA incentive to start business there. Mumbai is renowned as India’s major financial and commercial capitol as generates 6.16% of national GDP (The Financial Express, 2008). Other emerging companies located in Mumbai will establish competition, but also ensure that business continues to grow. Furthermore, it was ranked among the fastest cities in India for business start-up (MMRDA, 2009) which would allow our company to continuously grow. Regarding Demographic data, Mumbai is the largest city in regards to population. According to the 2011 census, the population of Mumbai city was more than 12 million (Figure Xb), (national population, 1.21 billion) and it has been increasing over time (BBC, 2011). Besides, in comparing to other major cities i.e. Delhi, Kolkatta and Chennai, Mumbai represented the  greatest growth over three decades (Figure Xc).

Intrinsic Motivation and Team Communication Essay

The greatest concern of the companies after recession is how to bring out the best in the employees with less funds and poor market response. Since the market is demanding more for less, companies are now forced to sell products at reduced margins. This state of affairs shows that the proverbial employee engagement policy through extrinsic rewards cannot be implemented under such situation. Moreover, the sales graph is getting down on one hand, while the competition is getting stiffer. Therefore, the best (and perhaps only) option lying before the companies is to adopt the intrinsic motivation policy, which does not involve monetary reward. However, it is always tough to break away from the convention, since the application of extrinsic rewards to engage the employees has become commonplace. Yet there is hope, if the findings of the researchers regarding the mechanism of motivation have anything to go by. The Guiding Light Even in 1985, researchers like Deci and Ryan (1985) used attribution theory and suggested that humans constantly reassess the reasons for their behavior besides others. Before that, Lepper et al. (1973) had observed that extrinsic reward (money) acts as a tool for reinforcement, which actually generates two effects for the management, like gaining control over activity or fastening the process, and two, the backlash effect in absence of reinforcement. The example below would explain it better: A group or an individual gets a reward of x amount of money for a period y, where x+y=m, m being the increased rate of production. Before that, the situation was y=z where production was z. Now in the absence of reinforcement and with the influence of attribution theory, the situation would stand like y-x = n, where n < z. This clearly goes against the basic reason for motivating the employees, i. e. , to enhance the profit of the organization. This also shows that something is missing, which could have played catalyst in between, and that something is ‘love for work’. The modern researchers have picked up the issue right from here. â€Å"Engagement occurs when an employee connects emotionally with his work,† says Paul Glen (2007), thereby underpinning the efficacy of intrinsic reward in employee engagement, since it aims to emotionally engage the workers. The Solution Yet it is tough to overtly implement intrinsic reward policy by issuing heaps of â€Å"well-done† certificates, as the employees may not adapt to this sudden shift of reward policy, especially when even a penny counts after recession. It is where the strategy of fostering team communication can come in handy, which is also backed by â€Å"Expectancy Value Theory† of Martin Fishbein (Expectancy, 2004), where he observed that â€Å"people mold themselves to the world in accordance with their expectations/beliefs and evaluations. † An effective team communication does that much-needed job – it converts the employee expectation from personal gain to team-gain, and team-gain becomes possible only when the individual worker meets the expectation of other team-members. This process manifests through both intra-team communication and inter-team communication, which generates high-degree of intrinsic motivation among team members that automatically creates an emotional bondage with their work. Consequently, members of the team become aware of the roles of each member and try to finish individual assignments in time to meet the expectation of the team members. Upon doing so, they enjoy job satisfaction on many accounts – as fulfilling a team of colleagues’ expectation raises the level of mutual trust, self-confidence and individual relationship. These are the elements of intrinsic motivation, which rules over money. And what comes out as the by-product? Company benefit, of course! References Expectancy Value Theory. (2004). Web document. Retrieved July 7, 2009, from http://www. tcw. utwente. nl/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Public%20Rela tions%2C%20Advertising%2C%20Marketing%20and%20Consumer%20Behavio r/Expectancy_Value_Theory. doc/ Glen, P. (2007). You can’t outsource retention. Computerworld, July 16, 2007.

Swedish Daddies Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Swedish Daddies - Assignment Example This is also to ensure that pressures to comply with the rest of the world by allowing paid paternity leave will reduce chances of employee turnover for those with families (Kamerman, Kamerman and Moss, 2011). The key stakeholders in the dilemma mentioned above include the fathers and the company policy makers and management. The fathers have to choose between working for an organization even without paid paternity leave hence risking their jobs as opposed to risking divorce and leaving their wives to handle everything concerning the baby on their own. This is a tough decision and for those companies without a paternity policy, the fathers just stay in their jobs and work. As for the policy makers and management of the companies that lack paid paternity leave, they risk family-oriented fathers leaving the company and looking for companies that have such policies. They therefore have to think of integrating such a policy. Since money issues will arise, they have to seek assistance from government as well as borrow a few leaves from other organizations with similar policies or simply reduce the paternity leave. Taking paternity leave paid or not depends on the character of an individual. Virtue ethics come to play here because there are those companies with the paid paternity leave but fathers do not take them. Culture is also different in different countries. Countries that are more masculine-oriented do not see the point in paternity leave as the role of child rearing is the work of women (Brandth, et al. 2011). For companies considering whether to establish such a leave policy, they should first think about the culture then think about the virtue ethics which may mean establishing the policy but not making it a mandate for the fathers to take the leave. To however know the virtue of the male employees, research should be carried out and no assumptions made. The

Developing Management Capability Speech or Presentation

Developing Management Capability - Speech or Presentation Example Your first lines, therefore, should be creative, exciting and interesting. b) 'These next lines are good, and they can be effective if said with passion that will show the listeners how significant a small percentage (like 2 per cent) can be when considered in context of the base amount which, in this case, is 1.2 billion in euro. Assuming that these figures are all well-researched and accurate, this part should serve to be when the you - the speaker - convince the listeners that what you are presenting is worth looking into. The presentation slides used to highlight these lines should show pictures of the market that the listeners would want to tap. Without such critical slides, the important point relayed by this part of the presentation - the market you want them to target - will just be missed by the listeners. c) These lines should never be said, "What sort of things do I mean by informational-educational This is not the best example, but it will help to illustrate the idea: Sotheby's has produced a video guide to eighteenth-century French furniture." They are ineffective points that will only ruin your presentation. These lines give your listeners the feeling that your presentation is not the best that you can give or do. Citing examples to make things clear would be effective only if the examples used for the purpose are the best and the most fitting. It is one big blunder to use second-best examples to illustrate a point; and it is another equally big blunder to actually tell the listeners that the example you are about to name is actually not the best. To be persuasive and convincing, your listeners should be made to feel that you took pains to put together for them a great presentation that contains accurate data and intelligent choices of words, examples, and lay-out of the slides. d) "Now I'd like to talk about where I see the opportunities in this market. I see them at the high end - the affluent - I think it's a defined target, it has a lot of discretionary income, and its interests lie in the areas I want to market into." These lines are ineffectively worded. There are better ways to put the points therein to words. Instead of those lines that rather sound dragging, you should instead use a slide or two to show the listeners a diagram of the entire DVD-renting population and then to specifically point out the specific part of it that represents the market niche that you want to capture. Attaining such goal should be doable if your listeners will be fired up and become enthusiastic and passionate believers of what you yourself believe in. e) "The project would investigate the viability of starting a production and distribution outfit in Europe; it would investigate the potential product portfolio in the market, and would essentially turn an idea into a business proposition that can be put to a bank to raise capital." These lines would dampen the excitement roused by your earlier lines. These are ineffective points, unless they are rephrased and discussed with more optimistic and energy. The financing concerns are to be dealt with by the finance people, and maybe the conservative and serious words are the ones to use when talking with them. But when talking to a group for the purpose of

Communcation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Communcation - Assignment Example Distinctive channels have diverse qualities and shortcoming. 4. Decoder: Decoder translates the encoded message to recover the original message. This procedure has to be correct and accurate, or else the message is lost completely. This encoding and decoding will be exceptionally help full in military and versatile correspondences. a) Super Low and Extra Low Frequency bands (SLF and ELF) normally occur natural. This can be very long antennae used by electricity authorities, called power lines radiating 50 or 60 Hz. The signal is experienced as hum. The largest natural source of this radio wave is the interaction between the solar wind and the ionosphere, which results in low frequency currents in the earth and oceans. They are usually studied by geophysicists to understand, inter alia, the availability of ore deposits whose electrical conductance is different from that of the surrounding crust. Like ULF (As illustrated in b) below), these bands achieve applications in communication with submarines, and uses very low information rates. b) 300 Hz - 3 kHz. Ultra Low Frequency (ULF). Water or the earth does not readily consume electromagnetic waves occurring in this range. As such, they might be utilized to communicate among or with submarines and with mines. One drawback is that, with such low frequencies, one can only be in a position to modulate the amplitude sufficiently so they cannot convey much data. This is not a disservice if the stage is needed, as is the situation for systems used for navigation. The wavelengths are long to the point that radio wires may be very long. d) 30 - 300 kHz. Low Frequency (LF). This band advantageous since waves can be propagated around the Earth, using refraction and reflections within the ionosphere or the earth surface. For this reason, these two wave channels form a waveguide for the radio waves in this range, which can hence be tapped for communication purposes across the oceans and around the world. e)

Benefits of using pieces of crushed brick in the concrete Essay

Benefits of using pieces of crushed brick in the concrete - Essay Example Aggregates in the concrete make the concrete weather resistant through their design and composition. Brick can not be considered a suitable material for mixing in concrete if its weather resistance is declined. To increase the durability of concrete structures, Romans tried several materials in place of aggregates. Owing to the lower modulus of elasticity and higher tensile strength than stone aggregate concrete, brick aggregate concrete is considered a suitable option. Three different concrete mixtures were produced and tested in different conditions. The first sample group was made of 100% gravel, the second sample group contained 100% crushed bricks and the third sample group contained 50% bricks and 50% gravel. A total of 33 concrete cubes were cast, 11 from each group. The concrete cube samples were subjected to repeated cycles of the frosting and thawing process to simulate the real-world conditions. For each concrete mixture, 3 of the cubes were not frozen at all, 3 cubes unde rwent 10 freeze-thaw cycles and the last 3 cube samples were subjected to a maximum of 20 freeze-thaw cycles. The remaining 2 cubes were subjected to the oven temperatures to determine their porosity. Each concrete cube was tested for its compressive strength, and tensile strength. Brick concrete showed more compressive and tensile strength than ordinary concrete because of lower w/c ratio.

Future of Strategic Management Accounting Coursework - 1

Future of Strategic Management Accounting - Coursework Example In order to come to the discussion whether management accounting’s future lies in strategic management, it is necessary to start from the base of it. Management accounting has its features in contrast to financial accounting and it would be wrong to compare the two. Management accounting is designed to be used by managers and not by other stakeholders of an organisation. Unlike financial accounting, management accounting is confidential to an organisation and is not reported as public information. And above all the most important distinction between the two is the technique used. The computing techniques are on the basis of the needs of the organization and it hardly follows the general accounting standards. In recent times there has been a shift in the practice of management accounting as it extends its scope towards certain other areas like the strategic management, performance management and risk management. The discussion in this research paper will be confined to the role of strategic management in management accounting. The purpose of strategic management is to play an advancing role to the concept of traditional management accounting. But there have been some criticisms also regarding changes in the implementation of management accounting. The main aim of the research paper is to critically evaluate the controversies and arrive at a distinct conclusion regarding the best practice. Management accounting systems in the past years, before the innovations in information technology, have seen many problems in its applications in organisations.  

The Impact of Logistics and Supply Chain Integration on Maritime Research Proposal

The Impact of Logistics and Supply Chain Integration on Maritime Transportation - Research Proposal Example The oceanic containers make sure liveliness of consignments and several ports are bestowed to this expertise and as a result, strengthen their position as a key hub center. There have been a number of convergences of â€Å"Maritime Transportation† with Maritime Logistics, and which can be attributed to the objective integration of the modes of transport obsessed by the packaging and the growing needs of the end-users, which demands the use of logistics concepts (Edgerton, 2013, p. 25). To study and evaluate the contemporary technologies of integrated cargo transportation by sea and land, in combination with the port, maritime and ground transportation technologies, new communication and information technologies, shipment forwarding as well as warehousing techniques. These will be done according to the flows of commodities and shipment itinerary abiding with the basic principles of logistics of timeliness, security and competence, and keeping harmony with national and international maritime law. Demand for uninterrupted freight and â€Å"transportation† methods for the upcoming concept of â€Å"supply chain† and logistics integration is increasingly rapidly (Edgerton, 2013, p. 25). The unending problems of congestion faced by road transport and the limitation of the rail transport networks have resulted in a development of more effective integrated transporting solution. Supply chain integration stands for an assuring but complicated tool, which is still growing as a weapon in the global industry place. To maintain this maturation procedure, more supply chain research is required to expose the critical barriers of the integration procedure. â€Å"Maritime transportation† industry is a vital industry whose significance is being increasingly recognised in the global trading practices (Edgerton, 2013, p. 25). Carbone and DeMartino

Is empowerment a valuable tool for increasing efficiency and Essay - 5

Is empowerment a valuable tool for increasing efficiency and effectiveness in todays organisations - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that there is no denying the fact that most of the organizations use only a minuscule of their employees’ total potential and many times employees feel that their skills and abilities remain underutilized. In order to inculcate efficiency driven organizational attitude, the organizations need to give way to a setup that encourages employees to grow and learn and make an optimal use of their overall potential. It is only in such organizations that a space for innovation, efficiency and effectiveness could be created because the employees’ in such empowerment driven organizations do get a chance to make the best of their abilities and to develop new skills and attitudes that innovation requires Hence, in empowering organizations employees do feel an urge to go beyond their sphere of duty so as to put in an extra effort aimed at meeting the organizational goals. The employees in empowering organizations see their extra effort as an investment rather than being dissatisfied and wait for the highest bidder. In most of the successful organizations, it is the ability to encourage the untapped potential in the employees that enables them to compete in the markets and allows them to successfully retain the experienced and skilled talent. In that context, it is a myth to assume that the learning potential within organizations tends to be innate and once the employees are trained and introduced to their job responsibilities, they will learn new skills and behaviors on their own. That is why an empowering audit allows the organizations to learn about the immediate skill levels and motivation of their employees, and what could be done to inculcate new skills and behaviors. In that sense empowerment is a positive force that has immense relevance in varied processes and opportunities going on and available within organizations. Before understanding the role of empowerment in boosting organizational effectiveness and ef ficiency, it is a must to have an insight into how the organizations disempower employees and what are the significant traits of the disempowering organizations. The disempowering organizations do believe in fixing the blame rather than solving the key issues and problems.

The growth of international human resource management Literature review

The growth of international human resource management - Literature review Example Human resource management is facing stiff challenges now because of the diverse workforce in organizations and hence writing about HRM is worth now. The purpose of this article is to educate the readers about the importance of the International Journal of Human Resource Management (IJHRM) by Michael Poole and the publication of the first text book on IHRM, by Peter Dowling and Randall Schuler. In my opinion, this article is useful in giving the readers about the origin of publications in IHRM. The method used in this article is a comparative study. The author tried to link the parallel growth and progress of the field of IHRM to the evolution of the Dowling et al. book. This methodology helped the author to explain clearly about the importance of International Journal of Human Resource Management (IJHRM) and the Dowling et al. book in the current context of international business. This methodology seems to be appropriate for this article as the readers are getting ideas about the publications in the past and present in international human resource management. In this article, Barry Gerhart pointed out two major events took place in the field of international human resource management; the founding of the International Journal of Human Resource Management (IJHRM) by Michael Poole and the publication of the first text book on IHRM, which had as its main focus, HR in multinational corporations, by Peter Dowling and Randall Schuler (Gerhart, 2008, page1989, paragraph 1, line number 1-7). Moreover, the author also describes the parallel growth and progress of the field of IHRM, and link it to the evolution of the Dowling et al book since it first appeared in 1990 (Gerhart, 2008, page1989, paragraph 2, line number 6). The author argues that the IHRM world was much different than it is today when the Dowling et al text was first published in 1990. In his opinion, there

Nick Djokovic Essay Example for Free

Nick Djokovic Essay In today’s world, there are many sport figures one can look up to. We have chosen the best of the best in the tennis world, Novak Djokovic. Djokovic is a Serbian professional tennis player who is currently ranked world number 1 by the Association of Tennis Professionals. Despite being the underdog during his early years as a professional tennis player, he is now the best professional tennis player overtaking the previous king of tennis Rafael Nadal. Ever since the age of four, he has been interested in tennis. Unlike most children his age, it was not a fleeting interest. He was determined to achieve his dream of becoming the best tennis player in the world. With his steadfast dream, he has won six Grand Slam titles and has brought him to where he is now. This report will cover Djokovic’s personality, values and attitude, motivation and leadership skills that had helped him to achieve his dream. The points highlighted are also the main reason he is worth following as an influential leader. 2.0 Personality The big five model of personality consists of extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience. Djokovic can be seen as a person that is highly extrovert as he is fun-loving, expressive and sociable. During his comeback as the winner in the Australian Open, he was so overjoyed that he threw his racket, wristbands and his shirt to his fans (AOL News, 2011). Djokovic is also socially attached to his fans that he created an application known as ‘Nole4You’ that focuses on a direct coverage of Djokovic’s real time games (New Newsworthy, 2012a). On the other hand, Djokovic is low on the neurotism category as he is much balanced and emotionally stable. According to Suttles (2013), Djokovic was â€Å"gracious in defeat† as every defeat he channels it back into better concentration for the next match. Next, Djokovic is rather high on the agreeableness meter as he shows a great deal of care towards others through his charities. Djokovic created the Novak Djokovic Foundation which supports young children from disadvantaged communities especially in native Serbia (New Newsworthy, 2012b). Besides that, he was also elected as the ambassador of The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) in Serbia as he was utterly concern in the welfare of the people in his hometown as well as the importance in early childhood education in Native Serbia (Look To The Stars, 2011). He was also keen in participating in fights for the betterment of society such as the fight against acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) which required him to use the Head Red special edition bag collection from Head to the French Open Grand Slam (Look To The Stars, 2013a). Djokovic is also high in conscientiousness as he is responsible for his career and he is well organized after his achievement in the Australian Open. Although being reckless in his previous season, he is where he is now due to his hard work in perfecting his service techniques and getting his diet right (Carter, 2011). According to Djokovic in an interview, he wants to be consistent in his games and to do this, he has to stay fit and take care of his health and physical condition (The National, 2011). Lastly, Djokovic is very open to new experience. One afternoon in year 2010, Djokovic received a phone call from Dr. Igor Cetojevic who said that his fatigue in the 2010 Aussie Open was due to his diet that consists of glutens that caused an accumulation of toxins in his large intestines. Djokovic listened to his advice to practice a gluten-free diet as well as to build him up spiritually. Besides that, Djokovic also took risk to change his serve technique as advised by Marian Vajda. As a result of Djokovic’s openness, he no longer suffers from fatigues and he felt much happier and balanced. In addition, a change in his serve technique enabled him to defeat the former world number one five times consecutively and brought him to the top of the tennis world (Saslow, 2012). 3.0 Values and Attitude As a well-known figure in the world of tennis, Djokovic has certain values that enable him to enjoy the success that he has today. According to George and Jones (2012, p.93), values are defined as personal convictions about what one should strive for in life and how one should behave. Values are further divided into two categories; work values and ethical values. In terms of work values, there are intrinsic and extrinsic work values. In definition, intrinsic work values are values that are related to the nature of the work itself. Some examples of intrinsic work values that are prominent in Djokovic’s work are the ability to make important contributions to the public, the interesting work and the challenging work that can be done. Firstly, in terms of the ability to make important contributions to the public, Djokovic is well known for his philanthropic work. Due to this status as the highest ranked tennis player, he is very well-connected and is able to influence his fans over his beliefs. From this, he has helped to raise awareness for AIDS, human trafficking, poverty, human rights, women’s rights, children’s rights and many more (Look To The Stars, 2013b). Aside from that, his ability to make important contributions to the public and society is further supported by his status as the ambassador of UNICEF in Serbia. Aside from him advertising his beliefs on social media such as Facebook, Twitter and his video blog, UNICEF has also advertised their cause through Djokovic because of his popularity among the younger generation (UNICEF, 2011). Although generating a high pay from his career, he did not choose this career lifestyle because of it. He started playing tennis at the age of four and played professionally when he was 16 years old. This is due to his passion and interest in tennis. He has trained and played in every single tennis tournament to gain the experience he needed. Even though he has been injured quite a number of times in terms of ankle and knee injuries, that has never stopped him from pursuing his dream of being the best tennis player (Mitchell, 2013). However challenging his work may be, Djokovic never gave up. He continuously pursues his dream of being the best. After relentless practice and competitions, he finally replaced Roger Federer as the top ranked tennis player in the world. This attitude of his is admirable and serves as a constant reminder to his fans that nothing is impossible. On the other hand, extrinsic values are values that are related to the consequences of work. One of the more prominent extrinsic values is the high salary. Not only does he get paid for playing tennis, he gets paid through his endorsements deals with well-known companies such as UNIQLO, Fitline and Telekom Srbjia (Badenhausen, 2011). His salary also includes appearance fees, exhibitions and prize money. Besides that, his career as a tennis player provides him with many job benefits. One of the many is fame. Unlike most athletes, Djokovic enjoys being in the limelight and often shares news and funny anecdotes of his life with his fans. Next, his job provides very flexible working hours. He practices his tennis with his coaches at any time he wants. Due to his flexible working hours, he gets to spend more time with his family and to indulge in vacations as well as hobbies. According to George and Jones (2012, p.97), work attitude is defined as the collection of feelings, beliefs and thoughts about how to behave in one’s job and organisation. Although similar to values, work attitudes are more specific and are not as constant as values as work attitudes change over time. In 2008, although he was winning tournaments, Djokovic hired a new fitness coach in hopes that it will help boost his performance. After the change, he was able to defeat the two reigning champions in the tennis world, namely, Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal. His attitude changed once a new factor was introduced into his life (ESPN, 2010). 4.0 Motivational Theories Everyone in the world possesses a particular set of skills that they are good at in their lives. People who managed to realize their potential often harness that skill and sharpen it to become a much better person. During those times, motivation towards that ability drives them to keep pushing forward in harnessing those skills. Many professional sportsmen and sportswomen started training during childhood. Motivation is what has kept them and pushed them into training harder every day until they finally achieve their goal. According to George and Jones (2012, p. 183), there are three elements of work motivation; direction of behavior, level of effort and level of persistence. Novak Djokovic, world’s best tennis player, possessed all these three elements. For example, although his family had economic problems in Serbia, he still chose to fly to Germany to train despite only being 12 years old. Even as a child, he loved tennis with a passion. He once skipped afternoon classes in school just so he could attend tennis training with his coach (PRPepper Production, 2012). His passion, effort and persistence during training are boundless. His motivation was driven because he loved tennis rather than his parents forcing the sport on him. 4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Djokovic’s efforts and achievements relate a lot to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs consists of five different types of needs from the lowest to the highest; physiological, safety, belongingness, esteems and self-actualization needs (George and Jones, 2012, p. 187). The two needs most emphasized by Djokovic are the esteem needs and self-actualization needs. Right from the beginning, Djokovic was always focused and determined to be the best in the tennis world, which directly means beating the best players in the world such as Roger Federer, Andy Murray, Tommy Haas and Rafael Nadal. Esteem needs emphasizes on an individual being recognized and respected by others (George and Jones, 2012, p.187). Djokovic strived hard during his early years under the guidance of Nikola Pilic. At the age of 16, he was awarded the champion of â€Å"La Boule†. This event leads to the start of his professional career (PRPepper Prodcutions, 2012). However, he did not stop that as he was motivated aim higher. This further explains Maslow’s self-actualization need theory, which is defined as â€Å"needs to realize one’s full potential as a human being†. Djokovic trained hard every day motivated by one goal; to be the best tennis player in the world. Due to him having a high self-actualisation, Djokovic obtained the title of being the best tennis player in the ATP rankings in 2012 after obtaining a 43% winning rate in 2011. Today, Djokovic is further motivated by his lost to Rafeal Nadal in the 2013 French Open. Instead of giving up, Djokovic evaluates his loss as a sense of motivation to train harder in order to win the next tournament, Wimbledon (Gajaria, 2013).

Spider Silk: Structure, Function and Uses

Spider Silk: Structure, Function and Uses Spider silk, also known as gossamer, is a fiber spun by spiders. Spider silk is a remarkably strong. Its tensile strength is comparable to that of high-grade steel. The term silk normally refers to a wide range of continuous filaments spun by the several species of Lepidoptera and Arthropoda, used for building structures for various purposes including prey capture. Silk filaments spun by spiders and silkworms possess superior properties than other silk producing insects and more than 2500 orb weaving species existing worldwide [1 4]. Spiders have six or seven sets of glands, each producing a different fiber. These glands remained undifferentiated, early in the evolution [4 7]. The spinnerets, microscopic tubes originating from glands, are classified into major and minor ampullate. The term ampulla is used to describe the distal part of the secretary zone [8]. Unlike synthetic polymers, the biopolymers are composed of numerous monomers arranged in a strictly controlled manner [9]. M any attempts have been made in the past to harvest and convert spider silk filaments into fabric form [4, 10, 11]. Scientists have been hard at work attempting to marshal the power of spider silk for a range of medical applications-including wound-care applications; suture materials; muscle, bone, cartilage, tendon, and ligament repair scaffolds. Spider silk possesses mechanical attributes such as very high tensile strength and elasticity, making it one of the toughest fibers known to man. The problem is that spiders dont produce enough silk to render it marketable for mass human use. SPIDER WEB AND TYPES OF SPIDER SILK: Prior to the exploration of the structure and properties of spider silks, construction and design of webs have been the major area of focus. The spider webs can take a variety of forms but the most common type is the orb web. Different families of spiders like Araneus, Nephila builds orb web and other families of spiders construct tangle and sheet webs [33, 35]. Orb-web spiders invest little energy in searching for prey. It spends most of its time synthesising silk and constructing webs. An orb web has several spokes laid outward from a common origin. However, this varies amongst the various species of spiders [31]. The orb webs are often constructed with an orientation to avoid being damaged due to the air drag caused by prey capture [24]. In a three dimensional web, the energy required to stop a moving insect is dissipated mainly by breaking some of the strands. In a two dimensional orb web, it is achieved through stretching the spiral threads [29]. Due to high-energy requirement in protein synthesis, only the damaged parts of the web are reconstructed instead of the whole web. Large portions of the web are repaired through the enzyme digestion and recycling. Based on the vibrations of the strands, the spider locates the prey accurately. The orb-weaving spiders are able to synthesize as many as seven different types of silk [13-15] including dragline by drawing liquid crystalline proteins from separate gland-spinneret complex. The perfume-coated dragline helps to find their mates, swing from place to place, store food, eggs and for reproduction. Capture threads produced by the flagella form glands of Nephila Clavipes is highly compliant. Both Araneus and Nephila coat their capture threads with an aqueous solution that forms sticky droplets which enhances damping and harvests water from air [25]. Its principal function is to absorb and dissipate the kinetic energy of captured flying insects. [3]. The chemical composition of the aqueous solution of the adhesive spiral varies among the species qualitatively and quantitatively. The variation is mainly due to physical environment, diet, web recycling, and onto genetic changes in the web chemistry. SPINNING OF SPIDER SILK: Many spiders are active at night and their colorations are usually orange, brown, grey and black, to reduce the spiders visibility during day time. Silk secreting systems of spiders and insects are homologous and linked to the crural gland and cuticular secretions [6]. Cephalothorax of the spider attached to an unsegmented abdomen, which has spinnerets at the posterior end [33]. N.clavipes spider has three pairs of spinnerets namely, anterior lateral, posterior lateral and posterior median. The largest major ampullate gland secretes dragline silk protein, exits from the anterior lateral spinneret. Secretions of proximal region and the distal region together form spider silk. Proximal region secretions are rich in tyrosine residues, sulfhydryl linkages and acidophilic nature. They form core of the silk while secretions of distal zone form coating of the fiber, which lacks tyrosine and sulfur contents. A mature Nephila produces dragline silk fiber at approximately 1 cm/sec during web construction and can increase up to 10 times faster during a rapid descent [52]. Spider silk spun under water displays greater stiffness and resilience compared to silk spun naturally in air [53]. The diameter of the silk can be controlled by the valve located at the end of the duct [47]. The spiders have the ability to withstand temperature variation of up to 30oC and humidity variation of up to 70% [20]. Spiders can easily modify the spinning conditions by their moving speed, building the webs in different times in a day. Spinning speed has less influence on the diameter of the filament when compared to the temperature even though its influence on toughness. COMPOSITION OF SILK: Variability in silk spun by the spiders exists at different levels such as in inter-specific (between species), intra-specific (within same species) and intra individual levels [54]. The factors that affect variations in silk structure and properties include body dimensions, body weight, rate and temperature of reeling and spinning direction [17, 25]. Composition of silks produced by herbivorous spiders is rich in Glycine, Alanine and Serine. This type of silk can be predicted to some extent. However, the silk produced by predatory spider, cannot be predicted due to the different types of prey [40, 55]. Dietary compositions of herbivorous spiders are energy rich and poor in protein content whereas the diet of predatory spiders is more diverse and rich in protein. Competition for limited or fluctuating supplies of amino acid perhaps has resulted in the evolution of two different kinds of glands to secrete protein glues and silk fibroin. The spider produces the thr ead on a very strict energy budget using liquid crystalline polymer. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES: Spider silk has drawn attention from all the sections of engineering due to its superior properties when compared to existing fibrous materials such as the silkworm silk. Spider silk cannot be compared with silkworm silk. This is because spiders are difficult to raise in large numbers and their silk lacks the lustre of silkworm silk. The chemical compositions of various silks vary with the type of function they are intended to perform. In addition to the fibroin, other classes like glycoprotein , inorganic salts, sulphur containing compounds, amino acids, and ionic forms of amines are also present in the spider silk [69, 70]. Presences of these chemicals play crucial roles in identification of species, regulation of water content of the web and protection against microorganisms. Presence of 12- methyltetradecanic acid and 14-methyl hexadecanoic acid in less amounts impart antimicrobial properties to the spider silk. Wax like esters are also present in the su rface of the spider silk. Macroscopic Structure of Dragline Silk: Dragline spider silk is golden yellow in color and has circular cross section with a mean diameter of about 7 ÃŽÂ ¼m [19, 38, 54]. It lacks glue-like protein, similar to that of silkworm silk, as its associated with dragline fiber [56]. The dragline spider silk consists of semi crystalline polymeric structures with numerous small crystallites between amorphous regions. The mechanical properties of the dragline silk are highly influenced by the composition of the amino acids, insect size, diet, body temperature and drawing speed [99, 124]. The breaking strength of silk increases linearly with increasing spider weight and breaks at stress of about six times the spiders weight [47, 100, 129]. The average tensile strength of the dragline of Nephila clavipes is almost three times that of Bombyx mori (1.3 0.5 GPa, respectively). Tensile strength of spider silk reduces, when it is subjected to acidic rain and UV radiation [133]. Spider silks can u ndergo large tensile and compression deformations. The ability of spider silk to resist transverse compression is lower than that of many textile fibers like Kevlar 29, nylon 5, polyester and wool. REGENERATED SPIDER SILK PROTEIN BY ARTIFICIAL ROUTE: Forced Silking (Reeling) of Spider Silk Reeling devices have been developed for forced silking of dragline from the glands of anaesthetized Nephila clavipes [78, 115,140, 141] to reel about 3-5 mg of silk in one session. Splicing of silk genes into two different cell lines have been tried in the past using bovine mammary cells and hamster kidney cells, to produce large volumes of recombinant proteins [49, 135]. Successful sequencing of genes of the flagella form silk of tropical spider Nephila clavipes and N. madagascariensis has been achieved lately [39]. Recombinant DNA technology for microbial proteins [144, 150, 151] appears to be advantageous compared to that of chemical synthesis due to low cost, rapid preparation and absence of by-products. A team of researchers at the University of Notre Dame (Notre Dame, IN) the University of Wyoming (Laramie), and Kraig Biocraft Laboratories Inc. (Lansing, MI) have succeeded in producing transgenic silkworms. The advantage of these animals is that they can spin artificial spider silk with strength and flexibile attributes similar to those of native spider silk. Until this breakthrough, only very small quantities of artificial spider silk had been produced in the laboratories. Kraig Biocraft believed these limitations can be overcome through use of recombinant DNA. This biotechnological approach can be used to produce silk fibers with a broad range of physical properties or with predetermined properties optimized for specific biomedical or other applications. From the known sequence of the spider silk protein, genes are constructed and expressed using E. Coli as the host, which has been successfully used earlier for silkworm silk [160]. Genes of spider dragline silk have been inserted into mammary gland cells along with regulatory elements. Insertion of the genes into eggs of single cell goat has been tried. This was purposely done to produce water-soluble silk protein [154, 156, 165]. Few milligrams of genetically engineered silk like protein has been successfully produced based on the sequence of spider protein [155]. APPLICATIONS: Though availability of the dragline silk is limited, it is widely used in defence [4,] and medical [11] applications. Structural similarity and comparable properties of dragline and Kevlar [127, 180] makes it more attractive for applications where high performance, in terms of physical properties is in demand. Until World War II, spider silk was used as crossed-hairs in optical devices including microscopes, telescope and bomb guiding systems [4]. Silk strands of the web have an ability to elongate when an insect is caught, convert the preys momentum i.e. kinetic energy into heat, and dissipate about 70% of the converted energy. The web also gently rebounds so as not to catapult the insect back out. This ability to dissipate energy at very high strain rates makes spider silk suitable for body armour system and ideal for ballistic protection [131, 140]. Though biodegradability is a helpful aspect for sutures, it is as unwanted in high performance applications such as bulletproof vests. A very low glass transition temperature of -50o C to 60o C enables it to absorb sudden shocks at low atmospheric temperature and makes the spider silk suitable for parachute applications. However, super contraction in water is undesirable for use in the fabrication of parachutes [174, 175]. Earlier use of spider silk in the form of web, rather than a fiber, includes wound dressing to help blood clot and fishing nets. Spider silk protein can be used to coat the medical implants for better performance. Surgical thread, biomembranes and scaffolds for tissue engineering are the possible areas of application in biomedical and biomaterial fields. Due to low inflammatory potential of silk proteins and antithrombic nature, recombinant spider silk has potential applications in sutures for eye surgery, artificial tendon and ligaments for knee construction. Spider silk with higher safety co-efficient can be used in structural applications like elevator ropes, bridges and pillars [100]. CONCLUSION The dragline silk offers excellent physical and chemical properties that can withstand adverse and extreme conditions than many of the existing natural and synthetic fibers. Though the chemical synthesis seems to be unfruitful in many aspects, the recombination method of producing the spider silk using biological hosts proves to be a viable option for producing the spider silk in a large scale. In spite of various successful attempts made in the production of dragline silk in the laboratory scales, controlling the molecular conformation and their aggregation during the spinning for achieving properties similar to the native fiber still remains as a challenge to be addressed through future research.

Case Study: Patient with Heart Burn

Case Study: Patient with Heart Burn The patient is a 45 year old male with a history of eight weeks complaint of heart burn that worsens with lying down after dinner. The patient states that the pain lasts thirty minutes to two hours, and that it wakes him at night. Patient reports taking Maalox and Rolaids up to five times daily, however these only help for a short time. Medical History No Known Allergies Hypertension for two years Rheumatoid arthritis in hands and feet for one year Social History Patient is married with three children. Patient drinks two beers daily for the past twenty years and smokes one pack per day for twenty years. Current medications Prednisone 20 mg orally daily Diltiazem 240 mg orally daily Piroxicam 30 mg orally daily Multi- vitamin one orally daily Physical examination T. = 99 RR=18 Pulse =77 BP = 127/76 Weight 242 Height 59† ENT EOMI, PERRLA, mild sputum Cardiac – normal S1 and S2 Chest slight dyspnea Abdomen – soft, with mild pain (4 on 1-10 scale, with 10 being worst) to upper quadrant below sternum. Genitourinary deferred Rectal- deferred Extremities arthritic changes to hands Skin normal Neuro AAO times 3, normal DTR Gastroesophageal reflux disease is a condition in which stomach content leaks backward from the stomach into the esophagus. The symptoms are heartburn, nausea, and regurgitation; this causes an inflammation of the esophagus and possibly the larynx. Complications can be esophageal ulcers, Barrett esophagitis, chronic cough, and can lead to infection and inflammation of the lungs. Diagnosis is typically made by symptoms, endoscopy, and esophageal acid tests (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). GERD is caused by a break down in the barrier between the esophagus and the stomach. There are three main types of treatment that physicians consider when treating reflux disease. The treatment will depend on the severity of the symptoms (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). With any patient suffering from GERD, there are lifestyle changes and dietary changes that are effective in management of the disease (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Lifestyle changes that the patient can do are as follows: Stop smoking if tobacco products are used (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011) Taking antacids (of aluminum hydroxide content) (PubMed, 2012) Avoid food consumption within 2 hours of going to bed (PubMed, 2012) Avoid caffeinated beverages, chocolate, nicotine, alcohol, and peppermint (PubMed). Monitor intake of spicy and acidic foods (PubMed, 2012) Limit the amount of high fatty foods in the diet (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011) Eat 5 to 6 small meals during the day, instead of 3 large meals (PubMed, 2012) Monitor weight, as obesity increases the symptoms of GERD (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011) Elevate the head of the bed using a 6 to 8 inch block or a wedge under the mattress to enhance acid clearance when reclining (PubMed, 2012) Eat slowly and chew food thoroughly to enhance digestion (PubMed, 2012) *Avoid restrictive clothing, lifting heavy objects, straining, working in a bent position, and stooping (PubMed, 2012). * Chewing gum, this increases saliva production and natural acid reduction (PubMed, 2012). The symptoms may be controlled with the medications; however, the medical issue never goes away. Lifestyle changes are helpful in the overall treatment and control (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Diagnosis Diagnosis and treatment consist of a physical examination and history, esophageal motility testing, esophageal acid test, endoscopy (esophago-gastro-duodenoscopy or EGD), and possible biopsy to diagnosis Barrett’s (Ananal, 2012). The esophageal acid test is considered the â€Å"gold standard† for diagnosis (PubMed). Current medications and interactions related to GERD Calcium channel blockers are classifications of medications used to treat hypertension. These drugs can weaken the lower esophageal sphincter, which can cause GERD (Hughes, Lockart, Joyce, 2007) Corticosteroids in increased amounts have been associated with indigestion, heartburn, stomach pain and cramping, vomiting and diarrhea (Ananal, 2012). NSAIDs such as Piroxicam may cause abdominal cramping or severe pain, severe continuous heart burn and nausea. In combination with corticosteroids there is a higher risk of abdominal pain and the risk of stomach bleeding (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Treatment Treatment can include elevation of the upper body when sleeping, diet changes, and avoid certain foods, eating smaller more frequent meals, and stop smoking and alcohol use (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Medical treatment will include antacids taken one hour after meals; Tums and Rolaids are not recommended for regular use due to being a calcium carbonate. Histamine antagonist, such as Zantac, should be taken 30 minutes before bedtime to prevent nocturnal acid breakthrough. Proton pump inhibitors, such as Prilosec, should be taken, one hour before the morning meal. Foam barriers such as Gaviscon, work as a barrier to stomach acids and may be taken as needed for symptom relief, three times daily (Ananal, 2012). Antacids and alginic acid (Gaviscon) are the drugs of choice for quick relief of symptoms. These agents act primarily by rapidly increasing the ph of the gastric refluxate. Alginic acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate in saliva to form sodium alginates. The sodium alginate floats on the top of the gastric contents where it acts as a mechanical barrier, minimizing exposure of the esophagus to refluxate. H2 receptor blockers act by inhibiting histamine stimulation of the gastric parietal cells, thereby suppressing gastric acid secretion. They are most effective in suppressing nocturnal acid secretion. Proton pump inhibitors (PPI) strongly inhibit gastric acid secretion. They act by irreversibly inhibiting the H+ K+ adenosine Triphosphatase pump of the parietal cell. By blocking the final common pathway of gastric acid suppression compared with H2 receptor blockers. When prescribed appropriately to patients with severe symptoms or refractory disease, the PPIs are more cost effective bec ause of their high healing and remission rate and the consequent prevention of complications (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Prescriptions #1 DATE__6/12/2014_____ Patient name________ (M/F) AGE__45____ Address____________ Weight__242____ Prilosec 40 mg tablet # 30 Take one tablet by mouth every morning before the morning meal for acid reflux control Refill__1__ signature______________ Generic sub __Yes__ DEA#__________ #2 DATE__6/12/2014_____ Patient name________ (M/F) AGE__45____ Address____________ Weight__242____ Zantac 75 mg tablet # 30 Take one tablet by mouth every night 1 hour before bedtime for acid reflux control Refill__1__ signature______________ Generic sub __Yes__ DEA#__________ #3 DATE__6/12/2014_____ Patient name________ (M/F) AGE__45____ Address____________ Weight__242____ Gaviscon 1 chewable tablet as needed for heartburn relief # 1 bottle Take one tablet by mouth three times daily as needed for relief of breakthrough heartburn Refill__1__ signature______________ Generic sub __Yes__ DEA#__________ References Ananal, B. (2012). Peptic ulcer disease. Retrieved from Medscape.com: http://www.medscape.com/article/181753 Brunton, L., Chabner, B., Knollman, B. (2011). Goodman Gilmans:The pharmacological basis of therapeutics (12 ed.). McGraw-Hill. Hughes, J., Lockart, J., Joyce, A. (2007). Do calcium antagonists contribute to gastro-oesophageal reflux disease and concomitant noncardiac chest pain? The British Pharmacological Society Journal. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2007.02851.x PubMed. (2012). Lifestyle changes as a treatment of gastroesophgeal reflux disease:A survey of general practitioners. Retrieved from Pubmed.com: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article/PMC1661628 PubMed. (n.d.). Gastroesophageal reflux disease. Retrieved from PubMed health: http://www.nebi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH6001311 Identification of Didanosine | Results Identification of Didanosine | Results DISCUSSION The procured sample of didanosine was tested for its identification. The drug sample showed compliance with the data given in B.P. and Clarkes which reflects its quality and purity. Quality and purity of sample was also confirmed by the manufacturer. The lipids such as soyalecithin and cholesterol and all other excipients provided by the supplier confirmed by their identification test official in USP 24, IP and EP. All the excipients showed results in compliance with standard specifications. STANDARD CALIBRATION CURVE OF DIDANOSINE From the scanning of drug in 7.4 pH phosphate buffer was concluded that the drug had ÃŽ »max of 249 nm. From the standard calibration curve of drug, it was concluded that drug obeys Beer-Lamberts law in concentration range of 0-20mcg/mL. R2 = 0.9995 Correlation coefficient values indicated the linear correlation between concentration and absorbance. PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF LIPOSOMES Among the various methods thin film hydration method is widely used on a laboratory scale. In this method the lipids are casted as stacks of film from their organic solution using flash rotary evaporator under reduced pressure and then the film is dispersed in an aqueous medium. This method yields the liposomes with a heterogeneous size distribution. Also the liposomes that are formed are multilamellar in nature with some unilamellar vesicles. (Vyas and Khar, 2002). Venkataram et al., 1990 have used PC to prepare liposomes in a drug to lipid ratio of 1: 10. The temperature during preparation has been kept 40à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ °C as the glass transition temperature of PC is very low. The drug entrapment into the liposomes depends mainly on Drug: Lipid ratio. In this study, the cholesterol and PC are selected as lipids in combination on basis of percent drug entrapped and rigidity (stability). S.Vemuri et al are stated that, cholesterol improves the fluidity of the bilayer membrane, reduces the permeability of water soluble molecules throught the membrane, and improve the stability of bilayer membrane in the presence of biological fluids such as blood/plasma. The hydration characteristic of lipid film was studied for different batches of liposomes and then liposomes were evaluated for % drug entrapment. From results of % drug entrapped of different batches of liposomes that were prepared and stability of liposomes under different temperature condition it was observed that as the percentage of cholesterol was increased there was subsequent increase in the stability and rigidity of liposomes but at the same time percentage drug entrapment reduced, Due to reduction in phosphatydilcholine. Formulation F4 containing 70% of PC and 30% cholesterol showed maximum drug entrapment (29.41%) with satisfactory stability and rigidity i.e. showed spherical shape with only 1.86% of drug leaching at 25 after 30 days. However, when PC was further increased to 80% keeping cholesterol to 20% there was increase in % drug entrapment but simultaneous decrease in stability and rigidity. The shape was lost and drug leaching was more i.e.10.25%. The data was also treated statistically by using one way analysis (ANOVA) and found to be satisfactory significant difference (P PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF DIDANOSINE PROLIPOSOMES The proliposomes of Didanosine were prepared by powder thin film hydration (New, 1990). Here modified rotary evaporator unit was used as described by Lee et al., 1999. Different carriers like lactose, sodium chloride and lactose beads were used for preparation of proliposomes. Were hydrated with distilled water and the liposomes was analysed for % drug entrapped for different batches of proliposomes derived liposomes were as shown in the table 5.3. The Lipid: Carrier ratio was kept 1: 10 as reported by Song et al., 2002. The proliposomes of lactose were quite free flowing compared to the lactose that was used to prepare them and lactose proliposomes showed highest % drug entrapment (29.17). They were less sticky. Also as the amount of lipid i.e. lecithin was increased the proliposomes powder was found to be very sticky. This is because the lipid is sticky at room temperature. In case of sodium chloride the carrier was very free flowing but the proliposomes powder was very sticky compared to that made with either lactose or sorbitol. The particle size of the liposomes formed in sodium chloride and lactose beads was also greater than that formed with lactose. Here the carrier is non porous so majority of the lipid has to be deposited over the on the surface of the carrier, thereby maximizing the possibility of agglomeration and also because sodium chloride is hygroscopic. So it can be said that such nonporous carriers are suitable only for high melting lipids. The results are in accordance with those observed by Payne et al. As the amount of lipid was increased in case of sodium chloride the proliposomes were found to be extremely sticky because they tend to agglomerate (Payne et al., 1986a). The entrapment of the proliposomes made by using sodium chloride as a carrier was very low compared to that of either lactose or lactose beads because of the effect of the monovalent cation Na+. Sodium ion has the effect of increasing the release of cyclosporine from the liposome hence it decreases the entrapment of drug in the liposomes (Al-Angary et al., 1995). The proliposomes of lactose beads were found to be very free flowing just like the lactose beads from which the proliposomes were prepared but the surface area available for coating less compared to lactose powder and sodium chloride so film formed is thick so it yields multilammelar liposomes. Based on the above results the carrier was finalized. In subsequent experiments Lactose was used as a carrier and the formulation was optimized by a 32 factorial design. The effect of the two independent variables viz. Drug: Lipid ratio and Lipid: Carrier ratio was studied on dependant variables like entrapment and mean particle size. All other processing factors like vacuum applied, speed of rotation of round bottom flask; temperature, amount of surfactant etc were kept constant. OPTIMIZATION OF PROLIPOSOMES A prior knowledge and understanding of the process and the process variables under investigation are necessary for achieving a more realistic model. Based on the results of the preliminary experiments, drug: lipid ratio was found to be a major variable in determining PDE and Lipid: carrier ratio in determining the PMD. Hence, these variables were selected to find the optimized condition for higher PDE and PMD using 32 factorial design. By using 32 factorial designs, 9 batches of didanosine liposomes were prepared varying the two independent variables at three levels as recorded in the table. The prepared batches were evaluated for % drug entrapment (PDE) and mean particle size, which were taken as dependent variables and the results were recorded in the table A substantial high drug entrapment was achieved in liposomes of variable X1 (drug: Lipid = 1:15) and X2 (Lipid: Carrier = 1:15). EVALUATION STUDIES OF DIDANOSINE PROLIPOSOMES A) Microscopy of proliposome The microscopy of proliposomes revealed that the surface was smooth due to the coating of the lipid and some of the particles were agglomerated. The pictures of proliposomes are as shown in Figure. After hydration with deionized water a series of time-lapse photographs of proliposome hydration are as shown below in Figure. Here the formation of liposomes form proliposomes is shown. The results indicate that the process of dissolution/disintegration may occur by a progressive hydration of the lipid surface of the proliposome, taking the form of liposomes ‘budding off’ from the central core of the proliposome until both hydration of the lipid and dissolution of the carrier is complete. Although only an imitation of the process of proliposome hydration (due to absence of hand shaking to aid proliposome dispersion), this approach was thought to offer a reasonable indication of the process (Payne et al., 1986b). Finally the liposomes are formed that are multilamellar with a heterogeneous size distribution. The photographs reveal the multilamellar nature (Figure). Also the Maltice crosses shown in Figure indicate that the vesicles are multilamellar in nature. Also there are many unilamellar vesicles. B) Scanning electron micrographs. The scanning electron micrographs of carriers and optimized batch of proliposomes made with different carriers were taken and are as shown in the Figure. From the SEM pictures it is evident that after coating the surface becomes somewhat smooth and the surface defects are no more visible and a thick coating is also seen in proliposomes compared to the carrier alone. After coating of lipid on the surface the particles looks quite opaque and smooth compared to the carrier. EVALUATION STUDIES OF PROLIPOSOME DERIVED LIPOSOMES A) % Drug entrapped By using 32 factorial designs, 9 batches of didanosine liposomes were prepared varying the two independent variables. Various methods have been reported for determination of drug content in liposomes that involve separation of free drug from liposomes either by centrifugation or by dialysis or by sephadex column. Here the separation was affected by sephadex G25 column as reported by Guo et al., 2001. Here the PDE was calculated from the difference between the initial drug added and the drug detected after separation of the free drug. The results of various batches are as shown in the table. It was found that the % drug entrapped was highest when the Drug: Lipid ratio was highest. Also the Lipid: Carrier ratio was found to affect the entrapment of the drug into the liposomes. It was found that the highest % entrapment for all three levels of X2 was obtained at +1 level of X1 that is 21.37% at –1 level, 26.73% at 0 level and 30.89% at +1 level of X2. Graphical presentation figure shows the effect of the independent variable (drug: lipid ratio) on % drug entrapped. The results indicate that as the drug to lipid ratio increases the entrapment of the drug in the liposomes increases, as didanosine is a hydrophilic drug, which finds place within the core. B) Particle size analysis Particle size analysis results of various batches of proliposome derived liposomes are as shown in the table. The results are expressed as particle mean diameter. The particle size of the liposomes decreases as the amount of the carrier increases because there is a greater surface area available for thin lipid film formation which gives rise to a small particle size compared to a thick film that is formed when the amount of carrier is decreased (Hwang et al., 1997). The graph (figure) represents the relationship between lipid: carrier ratio on mean particle size. Mean particle size decreases as the lipid: carrier ratio increases because as the surface area increases thin film formation occurs that gives rise to smaller particle size. C) Stability Studies The optimized formulation was subjected to stability studies at 40C, 250C, 450C for 60 days. They were evaluated for physical appearance, entrapment efficiency, drug content etc. All the results obtained are within the limits and no major changes were identified physically.

Navigating Interstitial Spaces Essays -- Democracy American Tocquevill

Navigating Interstitial Spaces â€Å"[T]he law permits the Americans to do what they please.† Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America The protection of virtue, I submit, requires an understanding of interstitial spaces—spaces where formalist adherence to rules and laws does not suffice to adequately promote virtue. Recognition of these spaces spawned agent morality and Aristotle’s practical wisdom. Fascination with these spaces fueled Alexis de Tocqueville’s inquiry into American religious, familial and political mores in Democracy in America. Though America’s formal, codified laws of the 1830s granted â€Å"dangerous freedom† to the individual, Americans managed to navigate interstitial spaces with assiduous virtue. This discussion will briefly connect threads from Aristotle’s Ethics, Plato’s Republic, and Pericles’ funeral oration to preface a more extensive examination of Tocqueville’s careful study of the institutions which reinforced virtue within America’s interstitial spaces. The conclusion will examine and evaluate the doctrine of †Å"self-interest rightly understood† as the sole guarantor of virtue in the United States. Aristotle, one of the forefathers of agent morality, understood that universal and formalist rules alone could not sustain virtue. Practical wisdom, â€Å"a truth-attaining intellectual quality concerned with doing and with the things that are good for human beings† allows the moral agent to operate virtuously in a context-specific way. â€Å"[I]t is not possible,† Aristotle writes, â€Å"without practical wisdom to be really good morally.† Obedience to fixed rules cannot govern action â€Å"to the right person, to the right extent, at the right time, for the right reason, and in the right way.† In order to cultiv... ...ticipation correlate directly with the correct practice of â€Å"self-interest rightly understood† and we accept both Michael Sandel’s thesis about the rise of the â€Å"voluntarist self† and Robert Putnam’s thesis describing the decline of American social and political capital—then a gloomy picture emerges about the sustainability of virtue in the hands of enlightened self-interest alone. Without guidance in a wide expanse of interstitial space, it is easy to slip through the cracks. Words Cited Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Mitchell, Joshua. The Fragility of Freedom. Plato. The Republic. Putnam. Bowling Alone. Sandel, Michael. Democracy’s Discontents. Thucydides. The History of thte Peloponnesian War. â€Å"Pericles’ Funeral Oration.† Tocqueville, Alexis de. Democracy in America.